Thoughts of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle :: Ancient Greece Greek History

Thoughts of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle Three Athenian philosophers flourish in Greece from 470 B. C. until 320 B. C. These philosophers were famous for their "schools of thought." The first of these is Socrates who lived from 469 until 399 B. C. He did not leave any writings behind; therefore, we know about his ways of thinking from those of whom he taught. His famous method of instruction called the Socratic method is still used today. In this method, the teacher allows students to use their own deductive reasoning to see things for themselves through a series of questions and answers. Unfortunately, many did not agree with Socrates teachings. He was accused of corrupting the youth in Athens and sentenced to death. One of Socrates most famous students, Plato, established a second school of thought. Flourishing around 400 B. C., Plato contradicted his teacher in that he left many writings, his most famous being The Republic. He believed that a higher world of unchanging forms and ideas existed. If a person knew these forms, then he knew the truth. These things, however, could only be achieved by a mind that had been properly trained. One of his idea forms was his vision of government. He did not trust the democracy. He felt that the highest rank should belong to the philosophers who were also kings, followed by the courageous, and ended with the rest of who must have desire. He established the Academy at which he taught Aristotle. The third school of thought was that of Aristotle (384-322 B. C.). He felt that form and matter were one, not two separate concepts. Based on his beliefs that the previous were not separable, he not unlike his teacher, tried to discover the best form of government. Thoughts of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle :: Ancient Greece Greek History Thoughts of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle Three Athenian philosophers flourish in Greece from 470 B. C. until 320 B. C. These philosophers were famous for their "schools of thought." The first of these is Socrates who lived from 469 until 399 B. C. He did not leave any writings behind; therefore, we know about his ways of thinking from those of whom he taught. His famous method of instruction called the Socratic method is still used today. In this method, the teacher allows students to use their own deductive reasoning to see things for themselves through a series of questions and answers. Unfortunately, many did not agree with Socrates teachings. He was accused of corrupting the youth in Athens and sentenced to death. One of Socrates most famous students, Plato, established a second school of thought. Flourishing around 400 B. C., Plato contradicted his teacher in that he left many writings, his most famous being The Republic. He believed that a higher world of unchanging forms and ideas existed. If a person knew these forms, then he knew the truth. These things, however, could only be achieved by a mind that had been properly trained. One of his idea forms was his vision of government. He did not trust the democracy. He felt that the highest rank should belong to the philosophers who were also kings, followed by the courageous, and ended with the rest of who must have desire. He established the Academy at which he taught Aristotle. The third school of thought was that of Aristotle (384-322 B. C.). He felt that form and matter were one, not two separate concepts. Based on his beliefs that the previous were not separable, he not unlike his teacher, tried to discover the best form of government.

Rhetoric in Writing and Audience

Rhetoric is the study of effective speaking and writing. It is the art of persuasion and many other things. Over its long history there have been many different definitions of rhetoric, which stretches back to the Ancient Greeks and Romans in particular. In its long and vigorous history rhetoric has enjoyed many definitions, accommodated differing purposes, and varied widely in what it included. And yet, for most of its history it has maintained its fundamental character as a discipline for training students 1) to perceive how language is at work orally and in writing, and 2) to become proficient in applying the resources of language in their own speaking and writing. To see how language and thought worked together, however, it has first been necessary to artificially divide content and form what is said and how we say it. How we say things is precisely the way in which we ensure that our desired meaning has been transmitted to others, so there can be no passing on of ideas without also taking into account lexis. Because rhetoric examines so attentively the how of language, the methods and means of communication, it has sometimes been discounted as something only concerned with style or appearances, and not with the quality or content of communication. For many (such as Plato) rhetoric deals with the superficial at best, the deceptive at worst (â€Å"mere rhetoric†), when one might better attend to matters of substance, truth, or reason as attempted in dialectic or philosophy or religion. Rhetoric studies the effectiveness of language comprehensively, including its emotional impact, as much as its propositional content. Why Rhetoric is Important? The importance of rhetoric provides significant changes in the areas of learning and the development of a persons and institutions. The study of rhetoric, nearly continuous over 2500 years, has always been central to the objectives of a liberal arts curriculum. Extending that study to film, television, protests, politics, debates, philosophy and all forms of discourse has advanced such study into the 21st century. Here are the following reasons why the study of rhetoric is essentially important. It gives scientific writing a focus on argument in scientific debate Numerous studies have called attention to the importance of rhetoric in scientific writing by focusing on arguments presented in scientific debate articles. Rhetorical analysis and textual analysis stress the importance of studying scientific writing to provide better instruction of students learning the genres of academic writing. For example, Swales describes the difficulties of novice researchers or students with English as a second language in learning the literary conventions of American journals. Gusfield is one of the early writers to argue that scientific methods courses should include the study of literary techniques as well as statistical procedures. Davis subscribes to a similar view in that he claims only to be formally describing a model that he believes many social scientists intuitively or inadvertently follow. Davis argues that a conscious awareness of the importance of defining and then denying audience assumptions would ‘increase the Interesting Quotient (I. Q. ) of their discipline relative to the Interesting Quotient of other disciplines. It enables to better understand the processes of communication. Rhetoric is a subject of importance because its study enables us to better understand the processes of communication that underpin decision making in free societies. Judgments on matters of public policy take their cues from rhetoric, and so an understanding of any society's rhetoric will tell us a lot about its ideas, beliefs, laws, customs and assumptions – especially how and why such social features came into being. We don't typically think of it this way, but every law that is on our record books began as an act of rhetorical undertaking by some public or private citizen trying to fix a problem. Statutes and policies are the ends; rhetoric is the means. If law is the architecture of public life, rhetoric is the art that brings it into being. We don't typically think of it this way, but every law that is on our record books began as an act of rhetorical undertaking by some public or private citizen trying to fix a problem. Statutes and policies are the ends; rhetoric is the means. If law is the architecture of public life, rhetoric is the art that brings it into being. It serves as a means for public deliberation about public issues Those who identify rhetoric primarily with ornament, passion, specious argument and deceit, and even those who defend rhetoric as a desirable alternative or supplement to legal reasoning, fail to do justice to the signal importance of rhetoric in the ancient world as a means for public deliberation about public issues under conditions of uncertainty. Despite Plato's famous criticisms of rhetoric as mere flattery, the ancient world well understood that rhetoric had a substantive as well as a stylistic dimension; hence the common association of rhetoric with the merely stylistic aspects of deliberation is entirely misleading. It provides as a precursor for the semiotic study of communication Under the influence of Structuralism, rhetoric has been seen as a precursor for the semiotic study of communication, as in the work of Genette and the Rhetorique generale by a group of scholars headed by J. Dubois. More in keeping with the pragmatic nature of ancient rhetoric, Chaim Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca attempt in their La Nouvelle Rhetorique (1958) to formulate a modern rhetoric of persuasive argumentation. At the other end of the spectrum, writers associated with Post-Structuralism stress the playful, subversive side of the subject. And finally, the 1980s saw the revived use of explicitly rhetorical models in composition classes in secondary schools to combat an apparent decline in pupils' communication skills. How to Apply Rhetoric in Writing? In order for a writer to know how to apply rhetoric to his writing, he must first know and understand the fundamental forms of persuasive appeals, encompassing forms and rhetoric devices. Persuasive Appeals According to Aristotle, rhetoric is â€Å"the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion. He described three main forms of rhetoric: Logos, or the appeal to reason; Pathos, or the appeal to emotion; and Ethos, or the appeal to character. Logos, pathos, and ethos are completely different, yet, they all correlate. In order to be a more effective writer, you must understand these three terms. Logos meant more in ancient Greek than logic or reasoning, it meant â€Å"thought plus action†. It appeals to patterns, conventions, and modes of reasoning that the audience finds convincing and persuasive. Ideally, a writer should be able to persuade someone based solely upon reason. Although the ability to reason and to think are abstractly two of humanity’s defining characteristics, we are often guided by our passions—even if they lead to our ruin. Pathos is appeal to emotion. a writer needs to consider the things that the listeners value, need, hope for, fear, and so on; once the writer understands the things they care about, he or she can show how what the readers is asked to do is in accord with values they already hold. Ethos is your persona or â€Å"image† as a writer—your ethical character. If a writer communicates good will, good character, and good judgment, the reader will be far more likely to trust him or her. Trust is at the heart of effective communication, and without careful attention to ethos, the effectiveness of the other two modes of persuasion — logos and pathos — is also diminished. Encompassing Terms Next a writer should learn apply the three-ways, of rhetoric in the larger sense. Which can be distinguished between: Kairos, or the occasions to write, which include considerations like the contexts for piece of writing, while audience, or who will read it, looks at where a discourse may take place. Decorum, or fitting words and subject together, lastly, deals with making appropriate use of rhetoric, depending on both kairos and audience. Kairos is an ancient Greek word meaning the â€Å"right or opportune moment†. You should take time to consider what possible considerations for a piece of writings. Isocrates writes that educated people are those â€Å"who manage well the circumstances which they encounter day by day, and who possess a judgment which is accurate in meeting occasions as they arise and rarely misses the expedient course of action†. As a writer you should develop the ability to adapt to and take advantage of changing, contingent circumstances of your environment. Audience, all rhetorically oriented discourse is composed in light of those who will hear or read that discourse. Or, in other words, rhetorical analysis always takes into account how an audience shapes the composition of a text or responds to it. As writer you should choose an appropriate subject to the prospective readers. Make sure that your reader is appropriate to your purpose, because when it’s not your ideas will just be set aside. Decorum, lastly, refers the appropriateness of style to subject. It involves a range of social, linguistic, aesthetic, and ethical proprieties for both the creators and critics of writing. Each of these must be balanced against each other strategically in order to be successful in understanding or creating discourse. A writer should learn the degree appropriateness or suitability on the use of his words and language in his writing, to enable the interest of the readers to his own discourse. Rhetorical Devices. Good writing depends upon more than making a collection of statements worthy of belief, because writing is intended to be read by others, with minds different from your own. A writer should know how is to get through his readers–or even to be read and considered at all–it must be interesting, clear, persuasive, and memorable, so that he will pay attention to, understand, believe, and remember the ideas it communicates. To apply rhetoric in writing you must know, learn, and understand rhetorical devices in how they have be employed, as well as learning how to use them ourselves. The following are common rhetorical devices used in writing. Apophasis Apophasis asserts or emphasizes something by pointedly seeming to pass over, ignore, or deny it. This device has both legitimate and illegitimate uses. Legitimately, a writer uses it to call attention to sensitive or inflammatory facts or statements while he remains apparently detached from them. Example: 1) Luckily we need not discuss my opponent’s marital infidelities when evaluating his claim to hold the moral high ground. ) I would call you a liar and a cheat if you weren’t my best friend. Aporia Aporia expresses doubt about an idea or conclusion. Its several uses are the suggesting of alternatives without making a commitment to either or any. Such a statement of uncertainty can tie off a piece of discussion you do not have time to pursue, or it could begin an examination of the issue, and lead you into a conclusion resolving your doubt: 1) I have not been able to come to a decision about the new policy, since there seem to be good arguments both for and against it. ) I am not sure whether to side with those who say that higher taxes reduce inflation or with those who say that higher taxes increase inflation. Asyndetons and Polysyndetons Asyndeton is consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. In a list of items, asyndeton gives the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored account: On his return he received medals, honors, treasures, titles, fame. Polysyndeton, the opposite of asyndetons, is the use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and is thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton. The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up. Example: They read and studied and wrote and drilled. I laughed and played and talked and flunked. Enthymemes Enthymemes is a figure of reasoning in which one or more statements of a syllogism (a three-pronged deductive argument) is/are left out of the configuration; an abbreviated syllogism or truncated deductive argument in which one or more premises, or, the conclusion is/are omitted. Ex: 1) Since she lost the case, she must have been guilty. ) There are only two options available to us and we have seen that the first failed. Expletives Expletive it is a figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to the words on either side of the expletive. Typical examples include: in fact, of course, to be sure, indeed, I suppose, I hope, you know, you see, clearly, in a ny event, in effect, certainly, remarkably. Metanoia Metanoia qualifies a statement by recalling it (or part of it) and expressing it in a better, milder, or stronger way. A negative is often used to do the recalling. Example: 1) Your proposal will affect everyone is this area, or even the entire region. 2) You fail to realize the impact of these measures – or at least you have not considered the consequences in enough depth. Parallelism and Chiasmus Parallelism is recurrent syntactical similarity. Several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed similarly to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in importance. Parallelism also adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence. Example: Quickly and happily he walked around the corner to buy the book. Chiasmus might be called â€Å"reverse parallelism,† since the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced or paralleled by the first part, only in reverse order. Example: He labors without complaining and without bragging rests. Questions: Hypophora, Rhetorical and Procatalepsis Hypophora is one or more questions is/are asked and then answered, often at length, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one's own question(s). Example: 1) What are the consequences of such an approach to history? There are several, of which the most important is†¦ 2) What then shall we say that Abraham, our forefather, discovered in this matter?. . . What does the Scripture say? â€Å"Abraham believed God. –Rom. 4:1, 3 (NIV) Rhetorical Question is a question which ask, not for the purpose of further discussion, but to assert or deny an answer implicitly; a question whose answer is obvious or implied. Example: What kind of person would bet against the sun rising tomorrow, though? Procatalepsis is when questions are asked and answered by the writer or speaker, usually by anticipating objections: It is typically suggested that this team will lack the strength in midfield to cope with the opposition, but this neglects the experience gained in the recent tour against†¦ Analogies, Metaphors and Similes Analogy is a kind of extended metaphor or long simile in which an explicit comparison is made between two things (events, ideas, people, etc) for the purpose of furthering a line of reasoning or drawing an inference; a form of reasoning employing comparative or parallel cases. Example: You may abuse a tragedy, though you cannot write one. You may scold a carpenter who has made you a bad table, though you cannot make a table. It is not your trade to make tables. Metaphor is figure of explication occurring when a comparison made by speaking of one thing in terms of another; an implied comparison between two different things which share at least one attribute in common; an association between two unlike things (A vs. B) achieved by borrowing the language that refers to thing A and applying it to thing B. Example: Then Jesus declared, â€Å"I am the bread of life. † –John 6:35 [And compare the use of metaphor in 6:32-63] Simile is a comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object, event, process, etc. ) known to the reader. Example: After such long exposure to the direct sun, the leaves of the houseplant looked like pieces of overcooked bacon. Hyperbole, Litotes and Understatement Hyperbole is ,the counterpart of understatement, deliberate exaggeration of a person, thing, quality, event to emphasize a point external to the object of exaggeration; intentional exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Example: There were millions of people at the bus stop today. Litotes is an understatement formed by the denial of an opposite. This sounds confusing but is actually quite straightforward and a common rhetorical device. For example: Performances like that from the All Blacks are not uncommon. Understatement deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is, either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. When the writer's audience can be expected to know the true nature of a fact which might be rather difficult to describe adequately in a brief space, the writer may choose to understate the fact as a means of employing the reader's own powers of description. For example: 1) I think there may be some additional factors that you may not have accounted for. 2) Your analysis is far too simplistic. Amplification Amplification involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize what might otherwise be passed over. In other words, amplification allows you to call attention to, emphasize, and expand a word or idea to make sure the reader realizes its importance or centrality in the discussion. For example: This orchard, this lovely, shady orchard, is the main reason I bought this property. In conclusion lots of practice and experimentation are necessary to develop your rhetorical ability. A best way to experiment is writing in a journal or notebook. Consistency in doing such experiment will develop a natural ability and theory or art in rhetorical aspect. Remember that rhetorical devices are aids to writing and not ends of writing. Further, if used carelessly or excessively or too frequently, almost any one of these devices will probably seem affected, dull, awkward, or mechanical. But with a little care and skill, developed by practice, anyone can master them, and their use will add not just beauty and emphasis and effectiveness to your writing, but a kind of freedom of thought and expression you never imagined possible.

What Is Freedom - 1282 Words

Freedom, to many people does not necessarily mean they are free. There are many degrees and definitions of freedom throughout the history of America many different races, genders, and ethnicities experienced. The varieties of freedom come from multiple groups of people such as slaves, indentured servants, Native Americans, property owners, and Puritans. All of these groups had their own definition of freedom they experienced, ranging from little to no freedom, freedom from the land they possessed, and the freedom to worship any God they so choose. However, some of these freedoms conflicted with the freedoms of others. First and foremost, there were many groups of people who had little to no freedom in seventeenth – century North†¦show more content†¦In the American colonies, if such person was a property owner they were considered to be the most well off people as far as freedom goes. During the seventeenth century most of the thirteen colonies were established and vo ting within those colonies was considered a luxury. Voting was a freedom all property owners were given to contribute their say in how a colony should operate. Men who owned property was the prerequisite to be able to vote in British – American colonies. This was to ensure that men who possessed an economic stake in society and the independence of judgment determined the policies of government in the colonies. So a man with property in the seventeenth – century was known to have the amount of freedom desired by all people because they had the most say in how American colonies ran. Finally, the final type of freedom many people desired in seventeenth – century North America was the freedom of religion. This group of people included people like the Puritans. The pilgrims were the first group of Puritans that migrated to North America. These pilgrims sought out the freedom to worship their religion without any criticism. The Puritans before they landed drew up the â€Å"Mayflower Compact† which established the laws which the people of the colony would have to abide by. The freedom ofShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Economic Freedom?1509 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is economic freedom? In fact, what freedom really means, at its core? In words of Wayne Dyer, â€Å"Freedom means you are unobstructed in living your life as you choose. Anything less is a form of slavery† and according to Franklin Delano Roosevelt â€Å"True individual freedom cannot exist without economic security and independence†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Combine the sayings of these two great men and we get the true essence of what it really means to have economic freedom. In more technical terms, for an individual to haveRead MoreWhat Is Freedom For Love? Essay746 Words   |  3 PagesWhat is Freedom to Love? Some would say that freedom to love is, having no limitations or boundaries. To see everyone equally. Many would say that freedom to love is, to give ones life for another. I agree with both statements but I would go further to say that freedom to love is not only an act or a response but it is a lifestyle. Something that defines you. Something that make you, who you are. As proud Americans, this month we celebrate the freedom that we have in this country and theRead MoreWhat It Means to Have Freedom860 Words   |  3 Pages Today we accept that freedom is a basic right human right but what exactly is freedom. 1On one hand, there is physical freedom. People who are not imprisoned or enslaved are free. On the other hand, there is freedom as a the right to act, speak or think what you want. People cannot reach their full potential if they are not free in both senses of the word. Freedom means living life as one wants, everything else is a form of slavery. If a person is not allowed to make his or hers decisions, ifRead MoreWhat Does Freedom Mean?944 Words   |  4 Pages What does freedom mean to you? What is freedom? Are we born with it? Or is it something that is an absolute right? People always refer to the United States as ‘’the land of the free’’. Our Constitution states that everyone has the freedom of speech, religion and rights. I find it would be unconstitutional and immoral to take away or regulate the personal freedoms of any citizen rights it guarantees. Freedom is different in many ways culture to culture. Some cultures define freedom as a naturalRead MoreWhat Freedom Means to Me1807 Words   |  8 PagesWhat Freedom Means to Me: An American Ideal Defined Through the Eyes of a Teenager Intro to U.S. History 101-03 Prof. Paul Elovitz Claudia Molina February 1, 2013 Cmolina1@ramapo.edu 201-491-4761 Freedom means many different things to many people, but to me it means I can live in a country that believes in life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. I mean this is the â€Å"Land of the Free†. However, these are things that not everyone can experience. Freedom to me also means I canRead MoreWhat is the best argument for freedom of speech?1492 Words   |  6 PagesFreedom of speech and the liberty to uphold oneÂ’s expression has long been the subject of many debates. It has taken centuries if not years for mankind to come to a point where many can easily voice their opinions without having to ponder over the consequences. But one should always know where to draw the line. Freedom of expression also needs to have its limits. Two of the masterminds who put forth their work on liberty and freedom of speech were John Stuart Mill and Jean-Jacque Rousseau. The conceptsRead MoreWhat Was Freedom For African Americans?961 Words   |  4 Pagesof problems. (Lecture 1) After the destruction of slavery, it left nearly four million African American with no property, little training, and few rights; which made the definition of freedom for African Americans the central question on the nation’s agenda. The big question of the time period was, â€Å"what was freedom for African Americans?† (Give me liberty! An American 550) From 1865 to 1900 African Americans, despite being presumed free; blacks quickly realized they were only free from was the whippingsRead MoreWhat Is The New Idea Of The Message Of Freedom In North America1283 Words   |  6 Pagesquicky, leaving the Patriotes to find new means of spreading their message of freedom. Swanton is a mere eleven miles from the Canadian border and so it comes as no surprise that this was the location which many Patriotes used to seek refuge from Lower Canada following the failed insurrection against the British. Many Americans living in the town identified with their Quebecois neighbors’ ideas of classical liberalism and freedom from Britain during the early period of the rebellion. Likewise, many PatriotesRead MoreTrue Freedom Or Starvation Blues. What Does It Mean To1239 Words   |  5 PagesTrue Freedom or Starvation Blues What does it mean to actually be free? Does it mean sacrificing your basic rights? Does it mean being overshadowed by fear every single day? Afraid to vote? Afraid to walk down the street? Afraid to be shot or brutally strung up for thousands to see? Afraid just because of the color of your skin? Unfortunately, after the Civil War, this was the kind of freedom awaiting the newly freed African Americans in the New South. In Richard Wright’s â€Å"Black Boy†, a detailedRead MoreTo What Extent Can True Happiness Be Achieved with Limited Freedom? 1690 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"conditioned† from the time they are embryos. In this new society, emotions, religion and culture are sacrificed for social stability. People are not allowed any knowledge of the past, and everything is only explained to the most basic of truth. The freedoms we enjoy today are almost completely abolished. Naturally, we associate happiness with the ability to do whatever your want in life, so if we didn’t have this ability, can we still be happy in life? In the novel, it seems to be achievable on the